Ceremonial
Monochrome Wares of the Ming Dynasty
Exhibition catalogue
written and presented by Elsa
Favreau
Copyright © 2006 by Elsa Favreau
Ceremonial Monochrome Wares of the Ming Dynasty
Exhibition Catalogue
Front Cover:
·
Bowl with
monochrome white glaze, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province.
Hongzhi mark and period ( r.1488-1505) Height:
9cm, Diameter: 20,2 cm. The British Museum.
·
Stem cup,
porcelain with fresh red glaze. Jingdezhen. Yongle period (r. 1403-1424).
Height: 10,5 cm.Courtesy
of the Trustees of the Victoria and Albert museum.
·
Yellow Bowl with
rounded sides and slightly flared rim, covered with a yellow enamel.
Height: 8.5 cm, Diameter: 18,5 cm. 15th century, Ming Dynasty, Hongzhi
Emperor ( r.1488-1505), Percival David Foundation A558.
- Incised
dish with monochrome blue glaze. Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province.
Ming Dynasty, Wanli (r.1573-1620) mark and
period. Height: 4, 3 cm. Diameter: 24 cm. The British Museum.
Important
rulers of the Ming Dynasty
·
Hongwu (r.1368-1398)
·
Yongle (r.1403-1424)
·
Xuande (r.1426-1435)
·
Chenghua (r.1465-1487)
·
Hongzhi ( r.1488-1505)
·
Zhengde ( r. 1506-1521)
·
Jiajing (r.1522-1566)
·
Longqing (r.1567-1572)
·
Wanli ( r.1573-1619)
Ceremonial Monochrome Wares of the Ming Dynasty
Exhibition catalogue
“The colourful banners are displayed in all four
quarters”[1]
The subject
of this exhibition focuses on monochrome wares used for ceremonials and
sacrifices during the Ming dynasty.
The
exhibition aims at showing Ming monochromes related to ceremonial purposes.
Each ceremonial ware, called “jiqi” in Chinese, is connected to a different
colour- this colour being itself related to one of China’s sacrificial temples
where the imperial ceremonies were held.
Bright as Ming
Though
coloured glazes already existed during the Tang dynasty (618-907) and even
before, it is during the Song dynasty (960-1279) that a new interest in glazing
basic colours emerged. Nonetheless, this interest grew even bigger during the
Ming period (1368-1644) when the glazing techniques in coloured wares were
particularly achieved. As John Ayers asserts in his introduction to the second
volume of The Baur Collection:
“In
colour, (Ming porcelains) may be said to achieve a richness and sonority only
rivalled elsewhere, perhaps, in the finest pottery of the Islamic world. The
finest imperial porcelains of the 15th century in particular show a
remarkable finesse in all departments, and an assurance of taste that compels
us to regard this as one of the most inventive periods in the history of
ceramic design: it is not without justice that Chinese critics of later times
have ranked these alongside the major classic wares of the Song.”[2]
Even though
some Ming wares were criticised for relying their aesthetic success on some of
the principles of form and colour that had graced the classic wares of the
Song, a current consensus amongst historians and art historians assesses that
the Ming period was a flourishing dynasty in regards to art and therefore
porcelain[3].
Monochromes, in particular, held a material position in arts during the Ming
dynasty, under which some of the most technically advanced pieces were
accomplished.
Monochrome
The word
“monochrome” originates in the two Greek words “mono” and “kroma” and in the
same way refers to two definitions, two techniques, hence two types of wares.
The first definition stands for porcelain with a coloured glazed fired at high
temperature together with the body, whereas the second one defines wares
produced by using an enamel colour over already glazed white porcelain and
fired at a lower temperature. Sometimes these two groups are also divided into
“the monochrome glazes” (the first one) and the “monochrome enamels” (the
second one).
Ming Ceremonials
Famous
classical Chinese texts such as The MingShi (History of the Ming
Dynasty), The DaMingHuiDian (The Collected Statues of The Ming Dynasty),
The MingShiLu (The Veritable Records of the Ming Emperors) or The
Siku Quanshu (The Complete library of the Four Categories of Books) affirm
that state sacrificial ceremonies have played an important part in Chinese
history. Indeed, in Chinese thoughts, the Emperor stood for the Son of Heaven
and demonstrated his legal right to control the “Middle Kingdom”by offering
sacrifices to Gods. Not only were all ceremonial vessels made of porcelain[4]
but a great number of traditional Chinese beliefs assumed that wares of
particular colours were chosen for ceremonial purposes.[5]
These beliefs are partly due to a decision made by HongWu in 1369 that ritual vessels for imperial ceremonies
had to be monochrome glazed porcelains of particular auspicious colours.[6]
Moreover, it is worth noting the explicit and deliberate use of terms such as
“sacrificial red” (“jihong”) and “sacrificial blue” ( “jilan”) found in the
records of Qing scholars when alluding to red and blue wares. These terms
exemplify the intrinsic link existing between the Ming ceremonials and the
monochromes wares.
Blue, red,
yellow and white were the four colours assigned to embody four temples in
Beijing and through them, the Gods they represented. Blue wares characterizing
the Altar of Heaven (Tiantan), yellow wares the Altar of Earth (The Diqitan),
white wares the Altar of the Moon ( Xiyuetan) and red wares the Altar of the
Sun (Chaoritan)[7]. The shapes
of the wares exhibited are those of classical state ceremonial purposes such as
bowls, plates, dishes, ewers, stem cups.
Red, Blue, Yellow and White or Earth, Heaven, Sun and Moon
Blue as Heaven
The Mingshi indicates that at the
Temple of Heaven (Tiantan), a ceremony in various hues of blue took place.
Indeed, the emperor, while wearing a “robe of azure”[8],
worshipped the gods of Heaven by decorating the round three-tiered “Huanqiutan”
(the Circular Mound Altar) with blue glazed ceramic tiles[9].
Apart from the terrace, the inside was also decorated in such a way that blue
appeared in several shades and thus came to light as the main decorating
colour.
Although
rare due to the expensive cost of cobalt, the high-fired cobalt blue
monochromes became popular during the 15th century[10].
This technique began to be employed as a self-colour at the very same period
(15th and 16th century). Cobalt used at this time partly came from
China (starting from the Xuande reign[11])
and from foreign countries[12].
Imported cobalt came from as far afield as Persia, and was considered to be of
superior quality to the local Chinese variety (which contained impurities).
Paradoxically
blue monochromes are amongst the rarest ones while the Temple in which they
were used ( The Temple of Heaven) stands for the most important in Chinese
culture and history.
Red as the Sun
Although
abolished under Hongwu (r.1368-1398), the offerings to the God of Sun were restored under the Jiajing Emperor
(r.1522-1566). Following the traditional architecture and decoration of the two
major temples (Tiantan and Diqitan), the Altar of the Sun (The Chaoritan) had a
red glazed surface and was decorated with red tiles as well as red items – all
of them symbolising the Sun. The term “sacrificial red” seems to have
originated from the use of stem cups for the worship of God[13].
First
in the field, red coloured wares probably stood for the most famous Chinese
monochromes. However difficult was the production of bright red colours, it was
during the early Ming period, under the Hongwu Emperor, that “fresh red” or
“bright red” was achieved. These reduced copper red glazes monochromes varied
from orange-red to pinkish grey. Yet, red monochromes reached their zenith
under the Xuande Emperor when these wares combined an outstanding porcelain
quality status and an imperial ritual porcelain status at the same time.[14]
Indeed, the
innovation during the Ming Dynasty was that the potters mastered the reduction
firing techniques for the oxide of copper and in the 15th century
the colour became quite brilliant and deep.[15]
White as the Moon
In the same
way that Emperor Hongwu had abolished offerings to The Chaoritan, the Altars of
the Moon (The Xiyuetan) had to wait for its restoration by Jiajing to pursue
his offerings to the Moon. Following the harmonious traditional style, the
Xiyuetan was decorated in white as a symbol of the moon. According to the
Classical Chinese texts mentioned above, white ceremonial wares were
particularly used in the sacrifices offered to the imperial ancestors as well
as in royal tombs.
Regular
porcelain glaze, white wares were Xuande’s favourites.
The
“porcelain pagoda”, faced with white porcelain bricks, he built in honour of
his father Hongwu stands for an evidence of the leading role of white wares
during ceremonies.[16]
Moreover, in terms of technology the pure white porcelain itself was
distinguished for being exceptional. The KoKuYaoLun, manual for the literati
class to appreciate antiquities and utensils describing it as “white and
brilliant”.[17]
Yellow like Earth
The Diqitan
(Altar of Earth), where the ceremonies dedicated to the God of Earth took
place, used to have its platform covered by yellow glazed bricks, while the
prayer offered to God was written on yellow paper in black writing.[18]
In the same way that the blue colour reigned on the Tiantan, the yellow colour
shined on the Diqitan.
The yellow colour,
sometimes called “imperial yellow”[19]
stands for a new glaze specific to the Ming Dynasty. The first innovative shade
to be introduced was very clear and derived from an antimoniate of iron. It was
sometimes applied in a second firing as an underglaze on the high-fired
feldspathic glaze ( resulting in a clear brilliant yellow, exhibit 9) and some other times the yellow glaze was
put directly onto the high-fired body ( resulting in a darker yellow colour,
exhibit 11).
In the same
way that the sacrificial ceremonies combined different shades of a main colour
theme, each piece of the sixteen exhibited has been grouped according to its
general colour.
This exhibition is
thus divided into four parts (Blue, Red, Yellow and White). The exhibits were
all produced in the most important manufacturing centre for porcelain in China,
Jingdezhen, in Jiangxi Province. They have been temporarily borrowed from the
Percival David Foundation (London), the British Museum (London) and the Hong-Kong
Museum of Art (Hong-Kong).
Blue as Heaven
1. Dish with cobalt deep
blue glaze. Covered on both sides with deep blue glaze, it has rounded sides
and a straight rim. It is moulded inside with dragons round the side.
On the white base is the
Xuande six-character mark in a double ring in blue.[20]
Diameter: 20, 3 cm.
Ming Dynasty.
Percival David
Foundation A501
As for piece
number 1, the mark on the white base enables us to date the object and thus to
specify elements concerning the extremely dark shade of the colour. This blue
resulted from the cobalt imported from China, also called “Sumatran blue” used
throughout the Ming dynasty. The dark blue colour results from the black and
silver specks contained in this cobalt.
The shape is
characteristic of the dishes offered to the God of Heaven in Tiantan.
Representing the so-called “sacrificial blue” wares, this piece also stands for
a typical feature of Xuande (r.1426-1435) wares. Indeed, dragons were the usual
designs found on highly decorated porcelain during the Xuande era. They were
often used as a symbol of imperial power.
2. Blue brush washer
with wide base and low flaring, fluted sides. The object is blue glazed inside,
outside and on the base. The foot ring reveals a very white body burnt pale
orange-brown on the inner side. An incised double line runs round the outside
just above the foot. In the centre of the dish is a small firing crack, pin
holes and a patch of grit. On the base is a six character mark of Jiajing in a
double ring.[21]
Height: 5, 3
Diameter: 18,4cm
Ming Dynasty
Percival David
Foundation A531
This brush
washer is characteristic of the dark blue monochromes famous under the Jiajing
Emperor (r.1522-1566). The reign mark underneath enables us to date the object
and thus to specify elements concerning the extremely dark shade of the colour.
This blue resulted from the cobalt imported from China, also called “Sumatran
blue” used throughout the Ming dynasty.
Cobalt with
its rich, dark blue properties, black and silver specks where thickly applied
is behind the extremely elegant shade of this blue.
This brush
washer is emblematic of the so-called “sacrificial blue” wares.
3. Dark blue bowl with
incised dragons on the exterior. The bases are covered with a brown slip.
Diameter: 18, 3 cm.
Late Ming.
Covered with a cobalt blue
glaze, this bowl is on both typical of the dark “sacrificial blue” (“jilan”)
famous under the Ming Dynasty and representative of the “bowl” shaped wares
offered to the God of Heaven during ceremonials.
Its incised
decoration enables us to affirm its late Ming dating. Indeed, during the 16th
century (most certainly around the Emperor Wanli’s reign) there was an
abundance of material and, in this one, some of the dark blue monochromes have
incised decoration. This bowl has incised decoration on the outside. A slightly
bigger bowl with incised decoration in the inside is in the Percival David
Foundation ( PDF 501). The piece in the PDF has a coffee glazed rim and black
stained unglazed base.
The dragons
allude to the imperial power of the Ming dynasty.
4. Incised dish with
monochrome blue glaze. Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province.
Ming Dynasty, Wanli
(r.1573-1620) mark and period.
Height: 4, 3 cm.
Diameter: 24 cm.
The British Museum
Wanli was
the longest reigning monarch of the Ming dynasty. Although the excavation of
his tomb was particularly rich in blue-and-white porcelain, a few monochromes
were found. Amongst them was this round- sided dish. With an everted lip and a
tapering foot, which has sunk slightly in the centre during the firing process,
the dish is covered inside and out with a rich monochrome blue glaze. The glaze
has crept away from the rim during the firing, attractively exposing the pure
white porcelain underneath.[23]
Underneath
the vessel is an incised design of full-frontal dragon. The dragon is
surrounded by ruyi (meaning “ as you wish”) clouds inside. Outside two dragons are chasing flaming pearls.
The specific
mark of Wanli was composed of six characters: “ Daming wanli nianzhi” (meaning
made during the Ming Dynasty, Wanli reign period).
Red as the Sun
The whole
surface of the dish is pitted with tiny pin pricks and the centre is sunken in
the firing. The base is covered with a blue-tinged transparent glaze. [24]
Yongle
monochrome red wares appear to be
speckled with layer upon layer of red colour which has a depth and vibrancy in
contrast with the previous red wares ( which had a pinkish-red tone) achieved
under Hongwu.
6. Stem cup, porcelain
with fresh red glaze. Jingdezhen. Yongle period (r. 1403-1424).
Height: 10,5 cm.
Courtesy of the Trustees
of the Victoria and Albert museum.
Although
ninety-eight per cent of the finds from
the Jingdezhen stratum attributed to
Yongle’s reign are white wares, the use of copper continued during his
reign. It has been argued that red
copper wares from the Yongle period were not “high”[25].
Still, the shape typically symbolizes the “sacrificial red” wares offered to
the God of the Sun
In contrast
to the previous red wares, Yongle monochromes are speckled with layer upon
layer of red colour of greater depth than the Hongwu pinkish red tone.
The Yongle
mark consisted of 4 characters, which could be read “ Yongle nianzhi” (made in
the reign of Yongle). Yongle was the emperor who introduced reign marks. The
introduction of reign marks changed the status of ceramics within the history
of Chinese porcelain.
7. Copper red bowl with
rounded sides and slightly flared rim. The bowl is covered with a rich
copper-red glaze, white at the rim. The base of the piece is covered with a
plain glaze on which is a six-character mark of Xuande in a double ring in
underglaze blue.
Height: 8, 2 cm
Diameter: 18, 8 cm.
Ming dynasty, 14th-15th
century, probably Xuande period.[26]
Percival David
Foundation A529.
Copper red wares have
existed since the 14th century but it is not until the 15th
century that a deep, rich colour was obtained. This vessel, standing on a
well-cut foot ring from which rises the wounded sides, mostlikely represents
the splendour of the 15th century. Indeed the red magenta colour,
deep and brilliant, as well as the curdled texture is characteristic of the
outstanding red copper wares produced under Xuande. Minutely pitted where tiny
bubbles burst on its surface, the glaze produces the so-called orange peeled
effect.
Moreover, the white
mouthrim, “where the glaze ran thin and the copper volatilized”[27]
is another characteristic of 15th century monochrome wares.
8.
Porcelain bow with copper-red glaze. Jingdezhen.
Xuande
(r.1426-1435) mark and period.
Height: 7,6cm
Courtesy of the trustees
of the British Museum.
Openheim Bequest.
This vessel,
lik vessel no.7, is characteristic of the extraordinarily elegant and extremely
successful Xuande copper red wares. This dark “sacrificial red” was
considered such an elegant shade that
even later emperors attempted to have it recreated.
Both the
outside and the inside of the bowl are glazed.
The red
glazes achieved under Xuande comprise the same transparent glaze of blue -and
-white painted wares with a half to one per cent of copper oxide added.
Slightly underfired, the copper of this bowl has a mottled appearance in
contrast to Qing monochromes.
The bowl
shape is one of the several shapes used under Xuande known at present[28],
particularly used during sacrificial ceremonials and offerings to the God of
the Sun.[29]
Yellow like Earth
9. Yellow Bowl with
rounded sides and slightly flared rim, covered with a yellow enamel over a
plain felspathic glaze. The base is covered with a bluish-white glaze on which
lies a six mark of Hongzhi in a double ring in underglaze blue.[30]
Height: 8.5 cm.
Diameter: 18,5 cm.
15th century, Ming
Dynasty, Hongzhi Emperor ( r.1488-1505)
Percival David
Foundation A558.
Clarity and purity of
the glaze are the two terms often used to characterise Hongzhi yellow
monochromes. This bowl, today in the Percival David Foundation in London,
represents the great number of yellow vessels used to decorate the Altar of
Earth during Ming ceremonials. Its light colour characterizes the yellow
monochromes of the 15th century. Indeed, a much warmer and browner
yellow appeared during the 16th century.
Hongzhi marks
were six neat delicate pale blue kaishu characters, which read “DaMing
Hongzhi Nianzhi” ( Made in the Ming Dynasty, Hongzhi reign period).
10. Dish with rounded
sides and straight rim. Covered inside and outside with a pale yellow enamel
over a plain felspathic glaze.
Six-character mark of
Hongzhi in a double ring in blue on the plain glazed base.
The Chinese character”
Tian” ( “heaven”) has been cut through the enamel outside near the slightly
inclined foot-ring.[31]
Ming Dynasty, Hongzhi
mark and period ( 1488-1505)
Percival David
Foundation 599
Hongzhi mark which reads
“Daming Hongzhi Nianzhi”
(Made in the Ming
Dynasty, Hongzhi reign period).
11. Dish with yellow monochrome glaze.
Jingdezhen Jiangxi
Province.
Hongzhi mark and period
(r. 1488-1505)
Height: 4,4cm.
Diameter:17,8 cm.
The British Museum
This dish,
covered inside and out with a monochrome “ buttercup – yellow” glaze, has
rounded sides, an everted rim and a tapering foot. Yellow monochrome wares stand for the first real new colour of
the monochrome list of the 15th century,
Although
best known for its green and white wares, the Hongzhi yellow monochromes are
characterised by their delicate yellow colour and the clarity of their glaze.
The clarity as well as the purity of
the colour come from the fact that the colour is normally an overglaze one
fluxed with lead, so that the piece has beneath the yellow –which is applied
before a second firing- an ordinary felspathic glaze.[32]
The base carries a
six-character Hongzhi reign mark in a double ring. Most of the Hongzhi marks
were six delicate blue kaishu
characters, which read “Daming Hongzhi Nianzhi” ( Made in the Ming Dynasty,
Hongzhi reign period).
Another type
of this dish is in Paris, in the Musée Guimet.
12. Dish with monochrome
yellow glaze.
Jingdezhen, Jiangxi
province.
Ming Dynasty.Hongzhi
mark and period ( r.1488-1505)
Height: 4, 6cm.
Diameter: 21, 5 cm.
The British Museum
Although
perfectly emblematic of Jenyns affirmation according to which “ the tastes of
the Court during this period leant towards yellow [...] monochromes” [33],
this vessel differs from the previous one. It has rounded sides and a tapering
foot. The yellow monochrome glaze is thin and is worn through in patches to the
white porcelain body. Like most of the wares achieved under Hongzhi, on the
convex base of the dish appears the blue Hongzhi reign mark in a double ring.
Hongzhi ’s mark, which read “Daming Hongzhi Nianzhi” ( Made in the Ming
Dynasty, Hongzhi reign period) was composed of six delicate pale blue kaishu
characters.
This soft
yellow-coloured dish stands for the decorating ceremonial vessels traditionally
used in honour of the God of Earth, in the Diqitan, in Beijing.
White as the Moon
13. Bowl with incised and moulded decoration beneath a
monochrome white glaze.
Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province.
Hongwu period (
r.1368-1398)
Height: 10 cm.
Diameter: 21 cm.
The British Museum
The thickly
potted bowl has rounded sides, an everted rim and a spreading foot ring. The
inside is incised with an S shaped double-ended ruyi ( meaning “ as you
wish”) cloud motif. The sides are moulded with two phoenix. The bowl is covered with a glossy monochrome
white glaze and gritty flaws. It has a deep foot and the base is dug in further
than the join of bowl to foot. An identical bowl is in the PDF ( PDF A451)
Wares from
the Hongwu era tend to have a rather a
yellowish cast to the glaze and are less blue than those of the Yuan era.
This item
was used for ceremonial purposes. In China, white represents the colour of
mourning. It has been argued that white vessels were offered to the God of the
moon in order to placate the spirits of the royal ancestors and to invite them
to intercede in the underworld on behalf of the living.[34]
The dating of this
piece also marks its great importance. Indeed, Hongwu was the one to have
decreed, in 1369, that all ceremonial vessels be made of porcelain.
14. Dish with
moulded and incised decoration beneath a monochrome glaze.
Jingdezhen, Jinagxi
province;
Hongwu period
(1368-1398)
Height: 4,1cm.
Diameter: 19 cm.
The British Museum
This shallow dish has rounded sides and an everted
rim. It stands on a spreading foot ring. On the inside, it is decorated with
two phoenixes among large and small ruyi
( meaning “as you wish”) clouds in the cavetto and with three
incised clouds in the centre.[35]
Although much attention has been focused on the red
copper wares achieved under Hongwu, many white monochromes were excavated from
the imperial kiln site at Jingdezhen from the Hongwu strata. White dishes of
such quality were used at the court, especially for ceremonial purposes.
These ceremonials honoured the God of the moon and
took place at the Altar of the moon, “Xiyuetan” in Chinese, in Beijing.
15. Monk’s cap
ewer.
Jingdezhen,
Jiangxi province.
Early 15th century.
Height: 19,5 cm.
White porcelain jug made
to resemble, in profile, the cap worn by Buddhist Monks in winter, covered with
a transparent grey-toned glaze. Finely incised decoration appears under the
glaze. The main decorative motif is lotus scrolls in various forms. Above the
lotus scroll on the main body are the Eight Buddhist Emblems[36].
Above the foot is a lotus panel containing stylised flower spray. The strap
handle has a ruyi ( meaning “ a you wish”) motif top & bottom with a
floral scroll in between The cover is undecorated and has a tiny knob at the
back. The base is unglazed. Percival David Foundation A426
The body of the ewer is
well-refined white porcelain and the thick clear glaze has only the faintest
blue-green tinge. The vessel’s swelling body rises from a low foot and
constricts before joining the neck section , which forms an integral part with
the spout. It has been said that the vessel almost certainly dates from the
Yongle period.[37]
A similar piece is in the British museum.
16. Bowl with
monochrome white glaze.
Jingdezhen,
Jiangxi province.
Hongzhi mark
and period. ( r.1488-1505)
Height: 9cm.
Diameter: 20,2
cm.
The British
Museum
This finely potted
bowl has rounded sides, a flared rim and a tapering foot. Underneath the
blue-tinged glaze is the mark of Hongzhi. Hongzhi’s white wares have the
reputation of being finely potted. With its everted rim, this bowl is
characteristic of the white monochrome bowls achieved for the court of Hongzhi.
In the same way as piece number 10, Hongzhi
imperial porcelains were mostly marked with six neat pale blue kaishu characters, which read “Daming
Hongzhi Nianzhi” (Made in the Ming Dynasty, Hongzhi reign period).
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